1 A Communication Revolution: Radio and Telephony Technologies During the G.I. Generation
Simon Penso
1.1 Introduction
Keywords
- The Great War – World War I, a global conflict waged between 1914 and 1918.
- 1934 Communications Act – A federal law signed by President Franklin Roosevelt establishing the Federal Communications Commission
- American Telephone and Telegraph Co. – A massive telecommunications company co-founded by Alexander Graham Bell in 1885 and still in business today.
- Morse code – A form of communication pioneered by Samuel Morse that played an integral role in Bell’s invention of the telephone.
Learning Objectives
- By the end of this chapter, a student should be able to:
- Describe who was involved in the creation of the telephone and the radio
- Briefly describe these inventions’ impact during the First World War
- Discuss how these inventions impacted mainstream American society
The great minds of the early 20th century were responsible for the creation of many technologies that are used globally today. Notable among these inventions are certain foundational communication technologies that have played pivotal roles in the history of the United States: the radio and the telephone. Quickly, users found applications for these creations. Ranging from being an apparatus for wartime communication to becoming a prominent method of widely dispersing information to the public, the dominance of radio had its origins during the time of the Greatest Generation. Similarly, Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone had begun to carve out an important place as a staple of intra-continent communication, being used largely for business purposes but also playing a role during the Great War – World War I, a global conflict waged between 1914 and 1918. Additionally, these means of communication became increasingly prominent in the United States throughout the Roaring ‘20s and the Great Depression, then continuing their dominance through World War II and beyond.
1.2 A Brief History
Key Takeaway(s)
1.2.1 Early Days of Telephony
The name of Alexander Graham Bell has become synonymous with the creation of one of the world’s most widely used pieces of technology. Bell, a Scottish engineer, received the first patent for specific “improvements in telegraphy” in early 1876 (Bell, 1974). His filing was not without question, however. Another notable inventor of the late 19th century named Elisha Gray was supposedly racing Bell to patent the technology that would lay the foundation for the modern telephone. Numerous reports claim that Bell poached specific components of Gray’s version of the telephone and passed them off as his own. In some people’s minds, these accusations taint Bell’s claim to the invention. However, Bell’s patent was scrutinized in court time and time again and his reputation as the ”father of telephony” remains intact to this day. Additionally, the technical specifications in Bell’s landmark patent eventually served to support the further innovations by Bell and his colleagues to improve upon the original invention. One such innovation, the telephone exchange (which would later be known as the switchboard) gave rise to the lucrative telephony industry. It should be noted that around this time, Bell co-founded the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. AT&T remains a giant in the industry to this day. In its early days, AT&T faced accusations of monopolistic practices, eventually leading to its splintering into many of the telecommunications corporations that we recognize today.
“Alexander Graham Bell’s Telephone Patent Drawing and Oath” by The U.S. National Archive is in the Public Domain
1.2.2 The Birth of Radio
The invention of radio and subsequent radio based wireless telegraphy methods is a subject that remains hotly debated to this day. Two great scientific minds both laid claim to the creation of the radio: Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi. It should be noted that this first iteration of radio technology utilized electronic signals and morse code, with intelligible voice communication being developed later. While Marconi was the first to report the sending of wireless signals over great distances, including a transatlantic transmission, court arguments were less supportive of Marconi’s claim as the sole creator of radio based wireless telegraphy. Marconi received the general patent for the wireless transmission of signals in 1897, but seemingly always fought an uphill battle to truly establish himself as the father of radio. Marconi would bring suits against many parties, including the United States government, accusing infringement upon his patent (Harkins, 2008). This started the long and arduous court process that would culminate in a 1943 Supreme Court ruling that likened Marconi’s patent and subsequent suits to monopolistic behavior. As a result, Tesla was openly acknowledged as a founding father of wireless radio communications and Marconi’s patent was largely invalidated, albeit retroactively, as he and his Marconi company had already profited greatly from their strong claim as the original creators of radio. Despite Marconi’s apparent desire for the glory of being the sole inventor of radio, it cannot be argued that both he, Tesla, and others contributed greatly to the earliest iterations of radio based technologies. By the end of the time that the G.I. Generation had been improving upon radio, it had evolved into an ubiquitous technological staple with many applications.
“Electrical engineer/inventor Guglielmo Marconi” by LIFE Magazine is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0
1.3 Applications During Wartime
Key Takeaways
With both of these revolutionary inventions coming about in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was inevitable that they would play a role in the geopolitical space. This came to be during the First World War. Older methods of communication, namely the telegraph, were still employed during the war due to familiarity. However, these new communication methods were proven to be more efficient ways of transmitting information during wartime and came to be more widely adopted towards the end of the war and beyond.
1.3.1 Efficient Communication Overseas: Telephone Networks During World War I
For the first few years of the Great War, the United States remained uninvolved while fighting raged across Europe. Once President Woodrow Wilson and Congress did decide to declare war on Germany following the sinking of the Lusitania, the U.S. announced its presence with authority. One fascinating aspect of America’s involvement in the war was the partnership between the U.S. Army’s Signal Corps and the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, AT&T, known then colloquially as the Bell Company – after its founder (John & Laborie, 2019). This joint partnership was tasked with deploying a viable tactical communications network in France so that U.S. and allied troops could suitably communicate during battle. The timing of the U.S. entering the war was serendipitous for the Bell Company, who had recently been planning to pitch a major upgrade of domestic phone systems to the U.S. Congress. These ideas were then utilized to lay the groundwork for a rapid and robust network that would prove invaluable during the rest of the United States’ involvement in World War I. Many kilometers of telephone line were laid throughout France by Bell and the Signal Corps, thus significantly improving the consistency and speed of communication for the United States’ soldiers on the warfront.
Due to the haste with which this network was put together, security of the phone lines was not always paramount. Wires were left in the open and occasionally cut through by enemy soldiers, thus crippling the communication abilities between battlefield and operations centers. When this happened, soldiers had to revert to using telegraphs to share information. Despite the weaknesses of this primitive network, the collaboration between Bell and the U.S. Army proved to be a great success and helped the U.S. ultimately secure victory during the Great War (John & Laborie, 2019). These networks were left in place after the war ended and bolstered France’s domestic phone networks, while also serving as a blueprint for an enhancement of the phone networks in the U.S..
1.3.2 Clunky and Primitive: Radio Usage During World War I
We often take for granted the accessibility of modern radio technology, particularly as depicted in popular media. Beyond the simple walkie-talkie, we see sleek earpieces and lossless communication, typically working without a hitch. Unfortunately, this could hardly be further from the true scenario endured by the soldiers in World War I. Radio sets employed by troops in the early 1910s were massive, often requiring several men to operate and perhaps even more men to move from place to place. These early radios were also technically complex, meaning that the average soldier might not be able to operate one. This led to certain levels of mistrust between allies, with troops not always believing that their assigned radio operators were truly acting benevolently. Accusations of betrayal may have been often levied at innocent radio operators, who may have turned into scapegoats when something went awry with battlefield communications (Siepmann, 1942). The use of radio as a means of tactical communication was severely limited during the time of the Great War, leading more people to turn to the use of the telephone or the older telegraph to communicate. By the last days of the war, radio technology had improved enough to be somewhat viable. American soldiers saw the greatest benefit from radio technology in the wars that were to come, however. By the time the G.I. Generation had come of age to fight in the Second World War, radio was a critical means of tactical communication. Attacks were coordinated, foot soldiers communicated with airborne fighters, and commanders gave orders over the radio when the technology had become ubiquitous in the 1940s.
“Radio Engineering Principles” by Henri Lauer & Harry Brown is in the Public Domain
1.4 Commercialization and Mass Adoption
Key Takeaways
After wartime came to an end, these inventions began to carve out a place in the life of the everyday American. Telephones and especially radios became relatively ubiquitous. Radio became a primary medium for the dissemination of all types of information to the American public.
1.4.1 Telephony After the War
One major challenge with the telephony industry was the fact that it was largely privately operated. The aforementioned Bell Company owned the machinery as well as the right to research and innovate as they saw fit. Most other countries around the world had telecommunications networks that were owned and operated by the government. The U.S. government became involved with the operation of the domestic network in conjunction with Bell during the war, but ceded possession entirely back to the company once the fighting came to an end. This decision was met with a fair amount of pushback from legislators and citizens alike, who claimed that the government willingly re-enabled Bell’s status as a monopoly in the telecommunications industry (Janson & Yoo, 2013). The U.S. Government was not powerless, of course. The U.S. enacted legislation like the Communications Act of 1934. This act brought about the creation of the Federal Communications Commission to more closely monitor all sorts of communications industries (Hazlett, 2014). It did not, however, do much to appease those complaining about Bell Company’s monopolistic tendencies, since FCC regulations led to stiffer barriers for smaller companies attempting to carve out a local telecommunications presence.
1.4.2 Radio Hits Its Stride
The radio industry exploded in the years immediately following World War I. The Roaring 20s were largely influenced by the wide adoption of radio technology throughout the country. One great change that came with this adoption was the advent of broadcast radio. Radio had been a technology used for business and wartime communication, but in 1920 that all changed radically. The first public radio broadcast was made in 1920, and Americans were enthralled by the fact that voices and music were transmitted over radio waves from a broadcast station straight into their homes. This change in information sharing began a large-scale shift in how Americans expected to receive information relevant to them and their communities. No longer did breaking news travel by word-of-mouth; radio broadcasts kept people updated on a regular basis. All of a sudden, the radio spectrum became extremely congested. Savvy businessmen saw the newfound use of the radio as a goldmine. Radio stations popped up all over the country and radio became a primary medium for the dissemination of information of all sorts (Crawford‐Franklin & Robinson, 2013).
Additionally, the quality of radio broadcasts increased greatly around this time. Researchers for AT&T published works that led to a drastic reduction in static noises for radio broadcasts (Schwartz, 2009). Coinciding with these technical improvements was a great marketing push to get Americans to purchase home radio sets. As a result of this campaign, demand for radios skyrocketed, even as the Great Depression loomed. Americans were so desperate to listen to broadcasts in their homes that 75% of radio purchases were sold on credit as deferred payments (Scott & Walker, 2016).
“Photograph of Farmer Listening to Radio Discussion, Clarkston, Utah” by The U.S. National Archives is in the Public Domain
You may wonder – why were so many Americans willing to take on a significant amount of debt to simply have a radio in their household? We must understand that these people craved information and entertainment of any fashion. Never before had there been a way to stay “in-the-know” or to observe a gripping drama or comedy show all from the comfort of the living room couch. No longer did people have to step out to grab a newspaper or to catch a show. No longer did someone have to have a gramophone in their house to hear a tune – they could simply tune their radio to the frequency of a station playing all of the latest and greatest hits. Radios became a primary means of information dissemination across the country, which meant that anyone without such a device was simply behind the times.
The appeal of the radio and its broadcasting capabilities were not only enchanting to the average American citizen. Soon, companies far and wide came to love radio broadcasts because they were a perfect medium for advertising and marketing campaigns. In the early 1930s, a radio was present in over 40% of American households, meaning that there was a substantial target audience for advertisers to infiltrate (Smith, 2014). Major broadcasting companies that were incorporated during this era were some of the biggest beneficiaries of having access to this captive audience. NBC, CBS, and ABC were all founded during this “golden age” of radio and were obviously incredibly successful, as they remain staples in American media today (Radio’s Impact on Culture, 2009).
Case Study – What Comes After the War for Radio?
It may seem hard to believe, but during World War I, the United States government prohibited civilian use of radio equipment. Instead, the government repurposed radio technologies to develop applications to coordinate with friendly aircraft and to keep troops apprised of enemy movements. A darker, less acknowledged motivation was the fear of civilians making use of open radio waves for spying and espionage, although these fears were largely driven by hysteria.
Although radio was solely a military apparatus during the war, it was occasionally used as an entertainment medium to improve troop morale:
Ensign Lawton was stationed in the Azores, as the commander of a submarine chaser. It was Christmas time, and he and his fellow troops had resigned to spending the holiday at sea. On the day, a storm was brewing, and the crew battled it for an extended period of time. Exhausted, Ensign Lawton and his compatriots were preparing to turn in for some respite before having to wake up to take up watch at night. Before he fell asleep, Lawton heard music playing somewhere on the ship! He left to investigate and came to discover that one of his men had convinced the flagship to give a phonograph concert over their radio frequency. Lawton and his men chugged along in the darkness, listening eagerly to every note that came from the phonograph through the wireless radio that they were all huddled around. After an hour, some men on the flagship were so invigorated by the songs that they decided to take up their instruments and play a small concert of their own over the radio system! The men danced along for a while before coming together to light up a large electric Christmas tree on the mast of one of the ships. And as if that was not enough of a spectacle, they were surprised to hear a voice crackling through the very same radio wishing them well on a splendid Christmas night. It was the voice of the Naval Fleet Commander for the Atlantic Ocean coming through that radio. Afterwards, Ensign Lawton and his men felt rejuvenated, thanks in no small part to the magic of radio.
This small story shows us the powerful potential of radio usage in the general public as a method of entertainment and a way to disseminate information, which would become major applications for the technology after wartime.
Chapter Summary
The invention of the telephone and the radio brought about significant social changes in the early 20th century, the prime days of the G.I. Generation. Originally starting as niche products, these technologies hit their stride when America entered into World War I and later became part of the regular fabric of American life. We see an interesting dynamic in the privatization of telephony technologies versus the government-sanctioned restriction of radio usage during wartime. These two distinct technologies played an important role in the ultimate victory of the United States during World War I and would only become more prominent in the wars to come, particularly World War II. These technologies eventually became immensely important to the general population. Telephony became widely adopted as a near-instantaneous method of communication and remains prevalent today. Radio became a massive industry for news and entertainment and its evolution changed the way that the American public absorbed information.
Review Questions
Who is widely accepted as the inventor of the telephone?
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- Thomas Edison
- Alexander Graham Bell
- Albert Einstein
- Nikola Tesla
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Where was the U.S. Signal Corps tasked with working with Bell Company to create a European wartime telephone network?
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- Germany
- Great Britain
- France
- Italy
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When was the first public radio broadcast in the United States?
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- 1909
- 1930
- 1920
- 1941
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What primary purpose did radio serve in the United States during World War I?
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- Civilian shows and broadcasts
- Business-to-business broadcasts
- No purpose, as radio technology was entirely too primitive to make any broadcasts of substance.
- Military communications – including tactical battlefield broadcasts and longer-range communications from officers to soldiers in the field.
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Answers:
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- Alexander Graham Bell
- France
- 1920
- Military Communications
Food For Thought
How might certain parts of the war changed if telephony were not integrated into the effort?
After radio and telephony, what are some critical communication technologies throughout American history?
What sort of radio shows would be most marketable in today’s world? Or is the radio broadcast no longer a viable business model in the Information Age?
References
Bell, A. G. (1974). The Bell Telephone. In HathiTrust. Arno Press. https://babel.hathitrust. org/cgi/pt?id=wu.8906 7662395&view=1up&s eq=19
Crawford‐Franklin, C., & Robinson, L. (2013). “Even in an age of wonders”: radio as an information resource in 1920s America. Journal of Documentation, 69(3), 417–434. https://doi.org/10.1108/jd -08-2012-0108
Harkins, C. (2008). Tesla, Marconi, and the Great Radio Controversy: Awarding Patent Damages without Chilling a Defendant’s Incentive to Innovate [Review of Tesla, Marconi, and the Great Radio Controversy: Awarding Patent Damages without Chilling a Defendant’s Incentive to Innovate]. Missouri Law Review, 73, 745– 816
Hazlett, T. W. (2014). The Rationality of U.S. Regulation of the Broadcast Spectrum in the 1934 Communications Act. Review of Industrial Organization, 4 5(3), 203–220. https://doi.org/1 0.1007/s11151- 014-9429-9
Lawton. (1919, January 10). Longmeadow Had Christmas at Sea. The Springfield Republican, 4. https://earlyradiohistory.us/1919xmas.htm Janson, & Yoo, C. S. (2013). The Wires Go to War: The U.S. Experiment with Government Ownership of the Telephone System During World War I. Texas Law Review, 91(5), 983–
John, R. R., & Laborie, L. (2019). “Circuits of Victory”: how the First World War shaped the political economy of the telephone in the United States and France. History and Technology, 35(2), 115– 137. https://doi.org/10.1080/07 341512.2019.1652960 Radio’s Impact on Culture. (2009). Github.io. https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_understanding-media-and-culture-an-introduction-to-mass-communication/s10-03-radio-s-impact-on-culture.html
Schwartz, M. (2009). Improving the noise performance of communication systems: radio and telephony developments of the 1920s [History of Communications]. IEEE
Communications Magazine, 47(12), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350362
Scott, P., & Walker, J. (2016). Bringing Radio into America’s Homes: Marketing New Technology in the Great Depression. Business History Review, 90(2), 251-276. doi:10.1017/S00076805160003 49
Siepmann, C. (1942). Radio in Wartime. Oxford University Press.
Smith, S. (2014, November 10). Radio: The Internet of the 1930s. Www.apmreports.org. https://www.apmreports.org/episode/2014/11/10/radio-the-internet-of-the-1930s