15 Energy Crises and Technologies
William McGlone
15.1 Introduction
Keywords
- OAPEC – Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC)
- Richard Nixon – was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974.
- Yom-Kippur War – was an armed conflict fought from 6 to 25 October 1973 between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria.
- Incandescent light bulbs – emitting light as a result of being heated.
- Fluorescent light bulbs – a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light.
- General Electric – a multinational electric solutions company founded in 1892.
- LEDs – a semiconductor diode that glows when a voltage is applied.
- Phantom Tube – mimicked the electrical characteristics of a regular fluorescent tube
- BWR – A boiling water reactor uses demineralized water as a coolant and neutron moderator.
- Krypton Bulb – These lights are incandescent, but they have had some modifications made to them.
- Three Mile Island – a partial meltdown of the Three Mile Island, Unit 2 reactor in Pennsylvania, United States.
- Illumination Engineering Society – an industry-backed, not-for-profit, learned society that was founded in New York City. Their mission is to improve life through quality of light.
- J. Robert Oppenheimer – He is often referred to as the “father” of the atomic bomb.
Learning Objectives
- By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
- Uncover the political environment surrounding the ’70s energy crisis
- Analyze the economic and technological factors contributing to its severity
- Explore developments in energy and subsequent skepticism
- Think about how this affects the future
Political systems never live up to the standard of one hundred percent efficiency. There are inconsistencies and uncertainties. Since the birth of civilization, this has been a known truth. The baby boomer generation was born between 1946 – 1964, living through progressive times in their adult life. Applying this to the baby boomer time frame can provide insight into the energy crisis that greatly affected them. OAPEC is an organization of oil-exporting countries and makes up a large majority of the oil market. The organization issued an embargo on oil exports to the United States when Richard Nixon, the 37th president, offered financial assistance to Israel in the Yom-Kippur War. This was a short war launched by Egypt, Syria, and their allies against Israel. The cost of oil skyrocketed, contributing to new energy solutions and methods of handling this crisis.
Oil prices rose 350% and inflicted chaos on the entire American economy. Transportation and cost of living increased significantly during this period. Therefore, policymakers and engineers had to respond to save energy and decrease costs for the average consumer. Energy efficiency became a large industry where energy-saving lights and solutions were created. New research was conducted on the many ways to save energy.
Not only that, but culture was influenced because energy savings became a high priority. Society had to adjust and conserve energy for the benefit of everyone. Some energy alternatives emerged that inspired skepticism from the general public. Nuclear energy technologies were revealed to be faulty (NRC, 1985) in the 1979 Three Mile Accident, occurring after the tensest moments of the oil embargo. The Energy crisis of the 1970s caused energy technological developments, societal shifts towards sustainability, and skepticism revolving around trust in these new technologies.
15.2 Development of Energy Conservation Technologies
Key Takeaway(s)
Incandescent light bulbs (bulbs emitting light as a result of being heated) were invented by Thomas Edison way before this crisis emerged. These were largely manufactured and used in homes across the country. The incandescent light bulb design outputted lots of heat and was very inefficient in using all of its energy for light. This led engineers to develop the fluorescent light bulb (mercury-vapor powered), patented in 1941 but mass-produced later for consumers. The low price of incandescent light bulbs influenced society at large to continue its use; however, large companies and businesses spent more on illumination technologies and opted for a more efficient solution.
General Electric (GE), an electric product manufacturer dominated the field, but competition emerged giving rise to new, more efficient products in the ’70s. Tungsten halogen incandescent, metal halide, high-pressure sodium discharge lamps, and LEDs (a semiconductor diode) (image 3) emerged as more efficient forms of lighting. These new products produced a “better quality light” and shifted consumer focus from brightness to sustainability. Most light bulb designs featured a tube in the circuit that helped increase power and emitted light. A substitute device, the phantom tube, cut energy consumption in half. Modifications to the current design were much more popular with the general public.
15.2.1 Nuclear Developments
The BWR (boiling-water-reactor) was one of the monumental designs and developments used in power plant designs. They use boiling water to create steam and turn a turbine contained within a reactor vessel. Compared to other designs, it is much bigger and thus contributes to higher costs. Some faults were later discovered with the design, such as contamination of the steam and water since it is reused within the facility. When specifically referring to the Three Mile Island incident, the boiling-water-reactor design was to blame for the partial meltdown, as well as inadequate sensors and mechanical faults (NRC, 1980).
15.3 The Political-Industrial Situation Inspiring Change
Key Takeaway(s)
Policymakers and engineers contributed to the future technologies of energy conservation and the social changes that came with it. Not everyone viewed the high energy prices as permanent. Nonetheless, power companies and lighting manufacturers faced scrutiny. Richard Nixon called for congressional responses to the crisis, stating that they should push to eliminate unnecessary outdoor lighting (Camp, 2022). The political responses to these problems create some complexity (Wilson, 1971). The average consumer intended on continuing to purchase cheap incandescent bulbs and saw no new change necessary. Businesses utilized these new technologies in order to save money on illumination costs. Policy, however, had the biggest effect on the attitudes of the consumer.
“Inflation adjusted price of oil” by Macrotrends is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Even the companies themselves saw this as a large problem at hand. General Electric declared the need for new illumination solutions because lighting contributed to 20% (Wallace, 2021) of US energy consumption. Consumers did not immediately take hold of this because they were captivated by the cheap purchase price of incandescent bulbs. The market was established with consumers being reliant on the simplicity of the bulb. A major drawback of the bulb was the short lifespan; however, company General Electric created its own version of the krypton bulb. As expected, this bulb did not perform well in the consumer market. This goes to show that consumers stick to purchasing what they know to meet their basic needs.
15.3.1 Three Mile Island
On March 28th, 1979, the nuclear power plant in Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, suffered a partial meltdown of the unit 2 reactor. Due to the safety regulations enforced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, this accident was far less dangerous than its potential. There was no death toll as a result of the accident. The federal government responded by strengthening regulations in its committee. The nuclear industry created the INPO (Institute of Nuclear Power Operations) to promote the highest levels of safety. The industrial and political responses are important to consider since it may affect the future trust in nuclear technology.
“President Carter leaves Three Mile Island” by Nuclear Regulatory Commission is licensed under CC BY 2.0
15.4 Baby Boomers In Crisis: How Energy Changed a Generation
Key Takeaway(s)
The perspective of energy conservation most likely originated in a crisis like this. People take energy for granted and aren’t concerned until it is limited. The IES (Illumination Engineering Society) was a group created in 1906 to pursue new technologies in lighting. They set standards for businesses and consumers. During the oil embargo, they shifted their standards to be more efficient and socially sound. For example, the standard for lighting bank lobbies was constrained further to help save energy. Standards developed by organizations paved the way for the federal government to get involved and set its own energy expectations.
15.4.1 Anti-Nuclear Movement
During World War II, the United States decided to resort to nuclear weapons as a means to end the war against Japan. This showed the potential dangers of nuclear technologies in the form of death and destruction. Society at large responded to the nuclear industry with strong opposition (Rothwell, 2014). The general public called for a halt in nuclear testing and proper waste disposal. J. Robert Oppenheimer is often credited with inventing the atomic bomb. He contributed to the movement as a strong advocate against nuclear weapons, because he felt personally responsible for its destruction. This generation of people was directly exposed to the power of nuclear energy and changed the trajectory of future technology.
15.5 Current State of Energy Conservation
Key Takeaway(s)
Energy conservation currently is far-reaching and present in almost every sector. There are automatic lights, energy saving modes, produced by highly efficient white LED technology. During the ’70s there were multiple different forms of illumination technologies that each had their own uses. Now LEDs dominate the market with their versatility, efficiency, and cost. The overall cost of illumination in the United States has dropped significantly.
Nuclear power popularity and standards have increased significantly since the 70s. Many organizations have been created, to ensure that nuclear energy is sustainable in the US. Nearly 20 percent of power production is due to nuclear power plants (US EIA, 2022). The US is not currently under an oil embargo, but environmental motives for alternative energy are more of a factor. Safety features and regulations enforced by the federal government make nuclear energy far safer than in the past. Nuclear energy is more acceptable to the general public because of safety and economic (Kenley, 2009) advancements made over the decades.
Artificial Life Changed the Human Race
Ever since the industrial era, the absence of the sun has become less and less important. Whether we are working night shifts or being productive during the day, artificial light has changed our circadian rhythm, the way we work, and the way we live. We can stay up later and get up earlier because society utilizes lights that help us see. The capitalistic and business-oriented life that many Americans live must give credit to the lights that provide aid to our lives.
Adequate lighting changes more than we think. Eye strain, circadian rhythm, blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature are all influenced by the amount of artificial light in our spaces. Before artificial light, human beings had to live within the cycle of the sun and moon. Once the fire was utilized, it had to be controlled and contained to ensure safety. Similarly to fire, increased productivity resulted from light sources being used during night hours. The interconnected world now depends on staying productive through the night.
Chapter Summary
Oil prices skyrocketed due to OAPEC issuing an oil embargo on the United States in the 1970s. Energy savings became a large priority that was never fully understood before this event. Companies such as General Electric paved the way for new technologies to be created. The Illumination Engineering Society provided standards for future commercial and individual development. As an energy solution, nuclear power received skepticism from the general public as a result of the atomic bomb and the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. The societal shift in regard to energy consumption changed the sustainability goals of the future.
Review Questions
- What organization was created to create standards for lighting?
- a. General Electric
- b. Illumination Engineering Society
- c. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
- d. Bechtel Power Corporation
- What president was partly responsible for the oil embargo?
- a. Dwight D. Eisenhower
- b. Jimmy Carter
- c. Richard Nixon
- d. Ronald Reagan
- What is the most widely used lighting application today?
-
- a. Incandescent
- b. Fluorescent
- c. Halogen
- d. LEDs
Answers:
-
- B 2. C 3. D
Food For Thought
- Think about what you know about conserving energy today. In what way could you conserve energy by purchasing new and improved appliances? Were these options available during the ’70s? Why or why not?
- Explore the attitudes of each president during the oil embargo. Analyze their attitudes toward energy conservation and how this may have affected society.
References
Three Mile Island : a report to the Commissioners and to the public. (1980). Available from GPO Sales Program, Division of Technical Information and Document Control, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission ; National Technical Information Service.
Cracking in boiling-water-reactor Mark I and Mark II containments caused by failure of the inerting system. (1985). United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Inspection and Enforcement.
Kenley, Klingler, R. D., Plowman, C. M., Soto, R., Turk, R. J., Baker, R. L., Close, S. A., McDonnell, V. L., Paul, S. W., Rabideau, L. R., Rao, S. S., & Reilly, B. P. (2009). Job creation due to nuclear power resurgence in the United States. Energy Policy, 37(11), 4894–4900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.06.045
Stranges. (2022). Unnatural Resources: Energy and Environmental Politics in Appalachia after the 1973 Oil Embargo by Michael Camp (review). Technology and Culture, 63(1), 274–276. https://doi.org/10.1353/tech.2022.0030
Wallace. (2021). Inventing in a Crisis: Lighting the United States after the 1973 Oil Embargo. Technology and Culture, 62(4), 1143–1171. https://doi.org/10.1353/tech.2021.0156
Rothwell, S. L. (2014, November 5). antinuclear movement. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/anti-nuclear-movement
WILSON, R. Politics of Nuclear Power in the United States. Nature 233, 453–454 (1971). https://doi.org/10.1038/233453a0
U.S. Energy Information Administration – EIA – independent statistics and analysis. Nuclear power and the environment – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (n.d.). Retrieved November 16, 2022, from https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/nuclear/nuclear-power-and-the-environment.php#:~:text=Nuclear%20energy%20produces%20radioactive%20waste,health%20for%20thousands%20of%20years