Part 1: Theories and Concepts of STS
2 Social Constructivism
Victoria DuPre; Bella Feinzig; and Rebecca Carlson
Definition
What Is Constructivism? is a cognitive theory that highlights collaboration in learning. It is a sociological ideology focusing on how humans learn and survive in a constantly changing society. The principles of social constructivism were developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky in 1968. Social Constructivism is significantly interrelated to communication, observation, and environments (GSI). Vygotsky advocated that learning thrives the most in social and cultural settings rather than individually. People learn by discussing topics of all sorts with one another. People also learn by watching and replicating what they are experiencing (Vygotsky). While in the midst of the comprehension process, humans are absorbing the environment around them, whether positive or negative. The fundamental concepts that Vygotsky believed in were that knowledge is created, or rather constructed, through human connection and that individuals create purpose from their interactions. These interactions and experiences change through time, constantly changing the role of social constructivism. The implementation of new technology and societal norms can have a significant impact on this as well.
Saul Mcleod, Ph.D. psychology and research professor at the University of Manchester, described Vygtosky’s views as “theories that stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1968), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of ‘making meaning, ’” (Mcleod 2018). According to Vygotsky, cultural interactions play an important role in human development and perception of the world. That is, concepts are transmitted and understood through language, interpreted and understood by previous interactions and cultural experiences. Vygotsky states, “A special feature of human perception … is the perception of real objects … I do not see the world simply in color and shape but also as a world with sense and meaning” (Vygotsky, 1968). He argued that the ability to learn comes from social interactions and being integrated into a knowledgeable society.
Another definition of constructivism is that it is a method used in research to fill in the gaps. Researchers typically study social phenomena within the context of their culture or environment and carefully consider all relevant factors. In order to get the most out of the participants and rely on their perspective of the situation, the researcher collects the participants’ subjective data using open-ended questions and interviews. Data are gathered with the intention of bringing about social change and advancing social justice, and the researcher frequently develops a theory or pattern inductively.
Challenges
Here is where you will discuss those who may disagree with the theory or concept.
Relationship to STS
In relation to STS, it is critical to note the importance of understanding how a constantly modernizing society shapes social constructivism. Dr. Wiebe E. Bijker, a social constructivist theorist and professor in the Netherlands, continues to study Vygtosky’s approach and teachings, modernizing them to mold today’s society. Bijker continues to advocate for constructivism and argues that “We live in a technological culture,” we have an obligation to try to understand [that) technological culture” (Cutcliffe, 20). Bijker has witnessed many historical events that have shaped our world today. He states that people in society today have witnessed a technological revolution. From living and observing his environment, he teaches that our culture is heavily influenced and dependent on modern society and technology. Bijker believes it is nearly impossible to understand the world, western culture emphasized, without noting the role of science and technology. Technology
is featured in many areas of culture, like communication, environmental issues, and adaptability. Bijker feels that it is crucial to understand science and technology in order to understand modern culture.
Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) can be used to discuss two different topics: it is used as a research approach to study technical changes in society occurring on a daily basis, and it is also a theory comparing society and technology (Social Construction of Technology). When technology is embraced by society it creates social/behavioral changes. . According to Bijiker, the critical difference between a standard view of Science and Technology (and society) versus a constructivist view of science and technology is the interconnectedness of the domains. Instead of clear distinctions between political and scientific categories, they are intertwined (Cutcliffe, 2001). Bijker and other constructivists teach that understanding and regulation of scientific information is a social activity. He also states that “Social shaping of technology and technical building of society are two sides of the same coin” (Cutcliffe, 2001). Social constructivists believe that science, technology and society are intertwined.
In the social construction of technology approach, social groups are the apex. Technology and its importance is seen through the eyes of these social groups.
For the purpose of comparison with the overall body of literature, the graph displays the changes in the impact factor of the Journal of Constructivist Psychology and its associated percentile. The most popular scientometric statistic is called an impact factor, and it is calculated by dividing the total number of citations for two years prior by the total number of articles published in those years.
Examples
The Caste System in India
One persistent example of social constructivism in the cultural aspect is the caste system of India, “generally designated by the term jati (“birth”)” (Calkins, 2024). This social system sorts everyone into a sect of a hierarchical system at the time of their birth. These jatis were based on race, economic class, religion and more (Raj, 1985). At the start of this system, around 1500 BC, it was virtually impossible for people to deviate from their jati. This meant that the system perpetuated discrimination and did not give the lower classes a chance to improve their living standards. Additionally, it was expected that you marry into your jati, follow the proper behavior of your jati and socialize with your own jati. This system allowed the people in higher jatis to mistreat those of lower status and create long-lasting beliefs about the lower castes. Today, the caste system still exists, but to a lesser extent. Everyone is still born to a certain jati based on their family’s standing in society, but there is more flexibility within castes. Now, it is possible to move to a higher jati by mimicking their behaviors and socializing with those of a higher status. Although there is more movement between castes, there is still the belief that the lower castes are impure. This impurity, to the higher jatis, comes from the idea that their blood is unlucky, dirty and polluted (Calkins, 2024). People in the higher castes use this rhetoric to hold down those in lower castes in order to further their power politically, economically and socially. This caste system has created beliefs that have shaped India’s culture and history as well as the world.
In today’s society, we see the effects of the strict caste system in India through colorism, dialect discrimination, and the quality of life disparity. Throughout history, this hierarchy has been pushed on Indians and enforced through law and brutality. This has created long-lasting beliefs within the culture that harm Indians to this day. In a 2019 article written by Jayanta Kumar Bora, Rajesh Raushan and Wolfgang Lutz, an experiment was conducted to determine the connection between the under-five mortality rate and the caste system. The data was published by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and examined by the authors, and it was found that in the lower castes, children are dying sooner. They found that “83% of the caste-based gap in under-five deaths is due to the distribution of women’s level of educational attainment and household wealth” (Bora, 2019). It was also found that in the more deprived states, women are less likely to receive antenatal care, which leads to illness and death of the mothers. The long-standing caste system has relaxed throughout history, and it is important to note that although there is a medical care gap between castes, the gap has closed significantly in recent years. The social stratification in India has defined families and their quality of life before they begin living. This learned behavior has become ingrained in Indian culture, perpetuating the idea that some people are inherently better than others. This belief was made up and spread throughout many ages and is now taken as fact by millions of people.
Race in the United States
Another example of social constructivism in action is the concept of race within the United States. When America was first colonized, the Europeans claimed the lands of the Native Americans, leaving them with nothing. From there, the Native Americans were enslaved by the colonists and forced to work or die. As the Europeans traveled to the Americas, they brought over the idea of “white supremacy,” or the idea that white people “were natural-born leaders and that all other peoples were natural-born followers” (Cramer, 2024). Years later, the African slave trade began in America and the country was built by slaves for the Europeans under this same belief. For many years, the white Europeans did not see Africans and black Americans as people, as seen through many laws and regulations. They were not allowed to own land, not allowed to vote, could not use the same facilities as white people and were treated as property per Jim Crow laws (Braveman, 2022). The laws of the new United States suppressed black people while propping white people up. In addition to the Native Americans and Black Americans, people of Latino and Asian descent also were discriminated against within America by the white Americans. White people started the separation between races as a way to further their personal agendas while keeping people of color at a disadvantage.
The mistreatment of people of color in America was widely normalized for hundreds of years, and the effects of racism can still be seen today despite many of the discriminatory laws not being laws anymore. The idea of institutionalized racism, or systemic racism, is the phenomenon of “how institutional policies create consequences that perpetuate and worsen racial disparities” (Cramer, 2024). For instance, racial profiling and harsher sentencing in the criminal justice system contribute to higher incarceration rates among Black and Latino communities. In education, underfunded schools in predominantly minority neighborhoods limit access to quality education and opportunities, perpetuating cycles of poverty and marginalization. According to Braveman, “systemic racism is so embedded in systems that it often is assumed to reflect the natural, inevitable order of things” (Braveman, 2022). These systemic barriers reinforce stereotypes and prejudices, creating a self-sustaining cycle of discrimination and inequality that is difficult to break without comprehensive reform to promote equity and inclusion. Systemic racism in America illustrates social constructivism by showing how societal norms and institutions shape and reinforce racial identities and inequalities. The persistent disparities in areas like education, employment, and criminal justice highlight how social constructs of race are maintained and perpetuated through policies and practices. This ongoing cycle of discrimination and privilege underscores the idea that race and racism are not inherent but constructed and sustained by societal structures.
Missing Voices
Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Interacting with one another, in your culture, and in society at large is how one gains knowledge. The most important way for children to help create their building blocks is based on who they are surrounded by. In classrooms, teachers tend to do group projects, group discussions, and group assignments as a collaborative effort to improve one’s social skills. If a child does not go to school, does not have siblings, and does not leave the house often, they might lack social constructivism (Laux 2018). Having the privilege to interact with others increases social skills. Collaborating with others supports a strong community that can work through problems. Children need to be exposed to other people and situations in order to grow their social skills.
Summary
Chapter Questions
- How is social constructivism used in your educational environment? In your every day life?
- After reading this chapter, how important do you think social constructivism is in education?
- What are some example of social constructivism and can you relate?
- What do you use social constructivism in your everyday life ?
- How do constructivism affect the student learning?
- How does social constructivism relate to the classroom?
- What are the benefits of social constructivism?
- what is the main idea of social constructivism?
- What are the advantage and the disadvantage of social constructivism?
- How does social constructivism contribute to class room?
- What are the theory of social constructivism?
References
Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social constructivism. Journal of Social Sciences,
Literature and Languages, 1(1), 9-16.
Bora, J. K., Raushan, R., & Lutz, W. (2019). The persistent influence of caste on under-five
mortality: Factors that explain the caste-based gap in high focus Indian states. PLoS ONE, 14(8), e0211086. http://dx.doi.org.libproxy.clemson.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0211086
Braveman, P. A., Arkin, E., Proctor, D., Kauh, T., & Holm, N. (2022). Systemic and structural
racism: Definitions, examples, health damages, and approaches to dismantling. Health
Affairs, 41(2), 171-3. doi:https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01394
Calkins, P. B., & Champakalakshmi, R. (2024, November 13). Caste of India. Encyclopædia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Caste
Cramer, R. F., Keldin, G., & Nelson, H. (2024). Institutional racism in the United States revisited
(L. L. Knowles, Ed.). Chapman University. https://doi.org/10.36837/chapman.000602
Laux, K. (2017, November 30). A theoretical understanding of the literature on student voice in the science classroom. Research in Science & Technological Education. Retrieved December 4, 2022, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1165102
McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 05). Lev Vygotsky. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Social constructivism. (n.d.) GSI Teaching Resource Center. https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/social-constructivism/
Raj, E. S. (1985). THE ORIGINS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM. Transformation, 2(2), 10–14.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/43052102
“Social Construction of Technology .” (n.d.) Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics. . Retrieved April 25, 2022 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/social-construction-technology
Stephen H. Cutcliffe, & Carl Mitcham. (2001). Visions of STS : Counterpoints in Science, Technology, and Society Studies. SUNY Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1968). Thought and language (newly revised, translated, and edited by Alex Kozulin). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.