The Medieval University

Introduction

Commonly, during the Medieval Era, the European Continent is known for the generalization that is the Dark Ages. It is this time period between 476-1500 AD, or the fall of the Roman Empire to the Early Renaissance, that has been characterized for lacking scientific, scholastic, and societal achievement. However, contrary to popular belief, this time period was all but dark, and is greatly responsible for the ability for this chapter to be written. This time period, this Dark Age, is responsible for the formation of a revolutionary technology that, in modern times, has spread across the globe and led to the dispersion of scholastic knowledge all around the world, The Medieval University. With little resemblance, at its birth with no libraries, laboratories, museums, or buildings of its own, this objectively primitive idea of a Universitas (corporation) is now being renowned for the “great revival of learning” and being referred to by historians as “The renaissance of the twelfth century” (Hannam, 2007; Haskins, 1957, p. 2,4). The framework for this new technology, the university, was so groundbreaking and unorthodox that it shook loose the shackles holding the continent in the Dark Ages, bringing new people and ideas to different parts of the world for the sole purpose to learn and to teach (Haskins, 1957, p. 8). The idea of the University was destined for greatness from humble roots and is now widely recognized as an integral part of science, technology, and society. The connection between STS and The Medieval University is displayed through the developments that the European culture has started and has now influenced in the way we work with technology today.

Formation of the Medieval Universities

The earliest universities evolved from cathedral and palace schools designed initially to educate clergy and nobility. Palace schools trained young men in combat, theology, and languages, while cathedral schools provided a more theological curriculum (The Medieval University, 2007). As intellectual interest spread beyond ecclesiastical circles, curriculum expanded to include the Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the Quadrivium (music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy).

With rising demand for education came the rise of professional teachers, who began organizing into academic guilds. These guilds formed the foundation of the early university, shifting authority from the Church to educators. As Hannam (2007) explains, the concept of the corporation allowed these guilds to manage their own affairs, a radical change at the time. Institutions such as the University of Bologna (law), University of Salerno (medicine), and University of Paris (theology and philosophy) began to take shape in the 12th century, with Oxford and Cambridge soon following. Though not all had clear founding dates, their organic development marked a critical moment in intellectual history.

Abelard

One of the most influential figures of the medieval university movement was Peter Abelard (1079–1142). Often credited with founding the University of Paris, Abelard began his career in a cathedral school but soon broke away to create his own institutions where open debate and philosophical inquiry thrived (Compayre, 1893, p. 3–4). He was an exceptional lecturer, attracting thousands of students and challenging the theological orthodoxy of the Church.

Abelard’s emphasis on logic and individual reasoning laid the groundwork for academic autonomy. Even after his imprisonment for challenging Church doctrine, his intellectual following continued, forming new schools like Paraclete. His methods exemplified the transformative power of inquiry and established a precedent for the separation of philosophy from theology. Abelard’s legacy lives on in the continued pursuit of academic freedom in modern universities.

Shift in Philosophical and scientific thought

In the early Middle Ages, the Church held a firm grip on intellectual life, particularly in determining what could be taught within educational institutions. As cathedral schools expanded and scholars began forming communities of learning, a quiet shift in authority began. Teachers—especially those with reputations for attracting students—gradually asserted more control over what and how they taught, leading to a growing sense of academic independence (Cobban, 1975, Hannam, 2007).

This newfound autonomy wasn’t without friction. One major flashpoint was the reintroduction of Aristotelian philosophy into the curriculum, which many Church leaders viewed with suspicion. In 1277, Pierre Tempier, the Bishop of Paris, issued a formal condemnation of numerous propositions rooted in Aristotle’s teachings, fearing they undermined Christian doctrine (Ashworth, 2005). Yet these conflicts didn’t halt intellectual progress; in many ways, they accelerated it. The clash between reason and faith sparked important conversations that eventually led to a more nuanced relationship between theology and emerging scientific thought (Benson, 2006). Over time, the Church cautiously began to accommodate certain scientific views, setting the stage for empirical inquiry and the intellectual awakening that followed.

Subjects

During the time of the early university, there were four main areas of study: the Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology.

The Arts was very different than the arts courses and fields we know today and the words literal meaning. During the Middle Ages, the arts was referred to as the study of logic and natural philosophy. More simply, this meant studying how the inner workings of the universe worked, specifically: the study of physics, motion, time, space, celestial bodies, theological theory, and biology (Daly, 1961, p. 78). Of course, this is not an exhaustive list, but serves as a basis of the field. Commonly studied in this field were the works of Aristotle, as a basis of understanding and to hold new discovery to.

Law was be separated into two categories: Civil Law, and Canon Law. In the Middle Ages civil law was more of a historical study of, not European law, but that of Rome. The basis of all instruction was the Corpus Juris Civilis of Justinian (Haskins, 1957, p.35-36). The subject was taught to mastery of the entire system of law developed by the romans, and to expand that system into the inner-workings of the European law system. Canon law was sought after more by the church during the Middle Ages. The focus of canonical law is to serve the church regarding law. It implemented the basic ideas of civil law and fabricated new ideas according to the church and ecclesiastical study. The medieval church needed lawyers to run it, and canonists had a good chance of rising to high dignity (Haskins, 1957, p. 36-37).

Medicine was a very underdeveloped subject in the medieval university. Aside from prevailing universities like Bologna, there were very few, if any at all, anatomical theaters in practice (Haskins, 1957, p.34-35). This was partially due to the control of human dissection by the church. Most medical knowledge was from books, those of Avicenna, and not on significant medicinal practice.

Picture: The Anatomy Theatre at Bologna University

Theology was, contrary to common thought, the smallest of the subjects pursued at the university. This is largely because admission requirements for theological studies were very high, the time to complete the degree was much longer, and the books needed were very costly.
Though these were the major subject taught in the medieval university, these subjects often spanned a multitude of years and branched into several different topics under the main subject. It is evident, however, that the main areas of study in the modern university took note from the medieval in shaping the way education is taught today.

Student Life

Medieval student life differed significantly from today’s experience. Early universities had no buildings; professors were the institutions, and students followed them from place to place. This mobility created a symbiotic relationship with local townspeople, who offered room and board. When housing costs rose, students would threaten to migrate elsewhere, which gave them economic leverage (Haskins, 1957, p. 8–9).

This dynamic eventually gave rise to colleges—residential halls independent of townspeople. Over time, these colleges became integral parts of the university experience. Students also influenced teaching formats. Professors had to comply with strict statutes: they couldn’t miss class, lectures had to start and end on time, and full syllabi had to be covered—or face fines (Haskins, 1957, p. 10).

Tuition was composed of two main expenses: living costs (housing, food, lighting, clothing) and academic fees (books, lecture costs). Lecture fees varied significantly by region. At Oxford, students might pay less than one gold florin per term, while at Bologna, costs could exceed ten florins. On average, a four-year degree cost between 48 and 250 gold florins—or about $26–138 USD in modern equivalents (Shanwei, 2017).

The Role of Universities in the Commercial and Scientific Revolutions

The influence of medieval universities extended far beyond the classroom. By developing professionals in law, medicine, and commerce, universities supported the Commercial Revolution. As more educated individuals entered society, legal systems evolved and trade networks expanded.

Universities also drove the manuscript revolution, increasing manuscript production from fewer than 100,000 per century to over 4 million (Cantoni & Yuchtman, 2012). These manuscripts preserved and spread knowledge across Europe. Moreover, the foundations laid in logic, mathematics, and natural philosophy enabled the later Scientific Revolution. Universities were not just academic centers—they were engines of societal transformation.

Impact On STS

Through a historical lens, the Middle Ages are portrayed as a dark age of little scientific, technological, and societal significance; however, the Middle Ages made great leaps in the realm of academia and set the foundation for the scientific expansion, modern university, and academic society existing today.
The expansion of scientific knowledge has important roots in the Middle Age. As shown earlier in the chapter, the existence of Abelard, shift of power away from the cathedral school, and advocacy by students significantly broadened the pathway for science to enter commonplace within the world and allow for the freedom of thought and discovery.
Most notably from this historical data, one of the most important technologies to ever be created by humans, is the fruit of this era, the technology that is The University. From its humble beginnings in the Middle Ages, the medieval university ambitiously developed from a system ruled and privatized by the church for the church, to a professor traveling in search of students to teach, students traveling far and wide to hear professors teach, the first buildings and theatres being built under a university name, full established communities under one name, The University. A technology that is now so advanced there are over 25,000 in existence across the globe, each founded on the principle of intellectual discovery and mastery, and each tracing its roots back to its seed, the Medieval University.

In the study of STS, one of the viewpoints of study is how science and technology impact society. The medieval university not only accelerated the expansion of scientific knowledge, but also enormously impacted the way in which society worked in the Middle Ages and today. One of the ways in which the medieval university affected society was slow but served as training wheels to get the European continent back on its feet from a “dark period” of economic slumber. As the university became more popular, there was an increase in need for rooms for the students. As mentioned earlier, the townspeople rented out rooms and received money in exchange. This got the economic gears of the continent turning. Another big way the university helped the economy was through the need of manuscripts and books being made. Historical evidence shows that manuscript production skyrocketed during the Middle Ages from less than 100,000 manuscripts per century to over 4 million (Cantoni & Yuchtman, 2012). The medieval universities also increased the amount of human capital in society. This was useful because it provided the framework for the Commercial revolution that took place at the same time as the creation of the university. A broad claim by Harold Berman, quoted in Medieval Universities, Legal Institutions, and the Commercial Revolution suggests, “The increasing application of Roman and canon law across all spheres of public life could have had a series of positive effects on economic development. … Harold Berman, who suggested that their discovery of Roman law, and the increasing development and sophistication of European legal systems (canon, Roman, and merchant law), brought a new approach to the solution of conflicts between secular and religious authorities which had plagued Europe during the better part of the Middle Ages.”. This claim is supported by the historical evidence that the need for commercial materials by the medieval universities, increased the economic wellbeing of the European continent, thus, improving the quality of life in society.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Medieval University stands as a keystone institution in the intellectual history of humankind. Far from a symbol of ignorance, it was the engine of Europe’s reawakening. By shifting authority from Church to scholar, redefining education, and enabling scientific and commercial revolutions, it restructured the relationship between knowledge and society, and the legacy of the medieval university lives on in the global academic systems of today.

References

Ashworth, W. B. (2005). Medieval and early modern universities. University of Cambridge: Department of History and Philosophy of Science. https://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/students/research-guide/medieval-early-modern-universities

Benson, T. C. (2006). The mission of the university: Medieval to postmodern transformations. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2006.11778917

Bologna, E. (2019). Archiginnasio, Bologna: the anatomy theatre. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://www.europeana.eu/en/item/9200579/tpe4dud3.

Cantoni, D., & Yuchtman, N. (2014). Medieval universities, legal institutions, and the commercial revolution. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(2), 823–887. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qju007

Cobban, A. B. (1975). The universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://pascal-clemson.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01PASCAL_CLEM/g45dlb/alma991000076269705612

Compayre, G. (1893). Abelard and the origin and early history of the Universities. Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Daly, L. J. (1961). The medieval university, 1200-1400. Sheed and Ward.

Hannam, J. (2007). Medieval science and philosophy. Science and Church in the Middle Ages. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://jameshannam.com/medievalscience.htm.

Haskins, C. H. (1957). Rise of universities. Great Seals Books: A Division of Cornell University Press.

Shanwei, X. (2017). Study of the tuition and living expenses of medieval European university students. Clemson University libraries – login. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://web-a-ebscohost-com.libproxy.clemson.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=807473ca-6470-422e-8246-8c8d78adaa19%40sessionmgr4006&bdata=#AN=120631646&db=aph.

University of Delaware. (2007). The medieval University. British Literature Wiki. Retrieved September 26, 2021, fxfrom https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/the-medieval-university/.

Medievalists.net. (2012, September 3). Science and the Medieval University. Medievalists.net. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.medievalists.net/2012/09/science-and-the-medieval-university/