38 The Age of Exploration

Introduction

The Age of Exploration, an era in which many European countries began focusing their efforts on global exploration, brought on great change in global societal relations. This era would have never been made possible without first advancing numerous technologies. These technologies making this time period possible range from the obvious in navigational equipment  to the more surprising in the invention of the printing press. As technology continued to evolve, more and more Europeans began to explore the world. This led to the rise of many deified figures such as Magellan and Columbus. These figures did change the world, and may have changed Europe for better, but their actions, and the overall actions of European explorers during this time, ultimately lead to the downfall of many Native societies worldwide. Improvements in navigation, shipbuilding, and mapmaking prompted the Age of Exploration causing the European economy to become more globally oriented and in effect causing the destruction of many Native societies worldwide.

Technological Advances

Exploration was not a new concept to Europeans by the time Columbus decided to search for India, however there had been very little, almost no, exploration of the Americas. With that, a fair amount of the exploration done was done on land, such as the work done by the almost mythified Marco Polo. Technology simply had not evolved enough to enable people to sail such vast distances provided by the Atlantic ocean. Hence, by the time this era rolled around, it was enabled by the technological advances that had been made prior and continued to be developed throughout the era. Advances in navigational equipment, such as the astrolabe, allowed for easier and more precise travel. Advances in ship making and weaponry allowed ships to travel longer distances with provided security. Finally advances in mapmaking made travel and exploration more accessible.

Navigational Equipment

The number of navigational tools used during the age of exploration was fairly large in number and each had a unique use. Arguably the most important or at least widely used was the astrolabe. The astrolabe dates all the way back to the Romans and had been used well before the age of exploration, however advancements in this technology as well as the introduction of its variant the Mariner’s astrolabe contributed to this era. This technology was notably used by both Magellan and Columbus and assisted sailors in determining latitude based on measurements from the stars. Many other technologies used similar measurements to determine the latitudinal position of the ship. The Kamal had a simple design, consisting of a string and a piece of wood. The combination of these two allowed sailors to align the wood with the north star, then use knots on the string to make measurements. The quadrant, yet another technology, was fairly similar to the kamal. Once again relying on the north star to make measurements, the quadrant was used by sailors to determine the height of the north star in the sky once again allowing them to determine position. The quadrant was not only used for navigation, making it a particularly useful tool. This technology could also be used to measure the height of distant mountains or buildings along the shore. This could help determine distance from land. It also made the quadrant particularly useful in battle by allowing sailors to determine how far away buildings were (Purinton). Some other notable navigational technologies included the back staff, traverse board and magnetic compass. The back staff, in a different manner from the previously mentioned tools, relied on the sun to make measurements. Sailors would stand with their backs to the sun and use the staff to measure their shadow. The traverse board, a fairly new technology during the era, involved a board in which sailors could mark their speed and direction every half hour (The Mariners’ Museum and Park). Finally the magnetic compass, a technology still used today, came from China and became widely used by sailors. This tool could be used alongside a map to determine position and direction by pointing towards magnetic north on the globe (Purinton).

Shipbuilding

As equipment used for navigation evolved, the ships used by sailors needed to evolve as well. Shipbuilding dates back to ancient times, but, similar to some of the navigational tools, ships were not quite equipped for long-distance travel, such as spanning the Atlantic. Hence, along came two more advanced ships, the Caravel and the Carrack. Most of what changed with these ships involved the additional or unique use of masts and sails. The Caravel, developed by the aptly-named Prince Henry the Navigator, had two to three masts. These masts could be equipped with either square or triangular sails. This unique ability allowed sailors to switch out sails for different situations. The square sails were used when faster travel was desired, such as covering long distances on the open ocean. When closer to shore, sailors could raise the triangular sails allowing for slower, more precise travel. The Carrack was slightly less involved, but did use similar principles. The Carrack had a varied number of masts, ranging from two to four, which could be equipped with larger sails for faster travel along long distances. One of the less considered advancements in shipbuilding actually involved the advancement of ship weaponry. Cannons, as with many other technologies mentioned here, had been used for quite some time. However advancements in cannons and cannon fire made them more suitable for maritime use. Cannons could be loaded with chain shots to take down masts or grape shots to cut down ship riggings and damage sailing equipment. As more and more people continued to sail and explore as well as the rise of maritime warfare and privateers, safety became a key issue. Ships needed to be able to protect themselves. Advancements in artillery made maritime travel more secure and safe (Purinton).

Mapmaking

Once again maps had been created and used for centuries before the age of exploration. The advancement made here that truly changed global navigation was not in the making of maps themselves but rather in the replication of maps. Gutenberg’s printing press, developed prior to the age of exploration, made the reproduction of any printed material exponentially easier. By the time the age of exploration rolled around, printed maps could be quickly replicated and distributed. This meant that maps became more consistent and could be easily distributed. Along with this, ease of access to maps of new lands and territories meant that travel became easier not just for explorers such as Magellan, but also for ‘everyday’ travelers such as merchants improving global trade (The Mariners’ Museum and Park). Not only did map-making aid in the replication of maps, but also in the spreading of popularity of exploration as well. The printing press enabled books, stories, and reports of explorers to be widely spread. This aided the popularity of the time period and lead to even more exploration (Wolfe, 2020).

Impact on Europe

Trade

As explorations continued and expanded, European nations became greatly affected by the era. The primary effect the Age of Exploration had on Europe involved international trade. The age had a strange effect in which it seemed to both increase trade, but at the same time decrease trade in a sense. As more and more explorers returned to Europe telling fables of gold and precious materials in the Americas, more countries raced to send explorers to bring back these valuable materials. However as time went on the focus seemed to change from seeking treasures from a strange work to establishing permanent settlements and establishing trade routes to bring items such as crops and lumber back to Europe. As European countries began to realize the values of these resources, they raced to establish more colonies. European countries would explore the Americas with the intent to establish colonies which would then accumulate resources to trade back to Europe (Berthou & Ehrhart, 2017). In this sense overseas trade and international trade increased, as many European economies were becoming more globally oriented and sought goods via trade from colonies. However in a way true international trade still seemed to decrease. Since European countries could now rely on colonies to acquire needed resources, they became less dependent on true other independent nations. These European nations would establish colonies, but then forbid them from trading with any other nation other than the ‘mother country’ (Berthou & Ehrhart, 2017). This led to less trade between European nations themselves in a sense.

Conflict

In a fairly correlated manner to how European countries became more hesitant to trade with one another, conflict arose amongst these nations as well. In the early years of the Age of Exploration many European nations were racing against one another to claim as much territory as possible and establish colonies as quickly as possible before any other nations could. Early on this involved a race between Spain and Portugal, which created conflict between the two nations. This would eventually be settled through the Treaty of Tordesillas, which divided up land in the new world amongst the two nations (Wolfe, 2020). This decision still impacts society today as this is the reason why Brazilians primarily speak Portuguese and most other South American countries speak primarily Spanish. Later on the French and the Spanish would come into conflict as well. This occurred when the Spanish showed interest in Florida and began establishing colonies in the territory. The French saw Florida as part of their claimed territory. This would in turn lead the French to settle further south, closer to Florida, in South Carolina. This once again would lead to conflict between European nations once again (Wolfe, 2020). Not only did this era lead to conflict between European nations, but between European colonies and Native Americans, but also colonies and European nations themselves later on.

Impact on Native Societies

Pre-Columbus America

Contrary to popular belief based on early research on the pre-Columbus Americas, many Native societies were highly advanced. Focusing on the societies of the United States, many Native American societies were agriculturally oriented. They would establish permanent settlements and as the society grew would establish smaller settlements surrounding them. This led to a central, more important “capital” as well as smaller surrounding farming communities. Permanent settlements led these societies to become more advanced economically, politically and socially. Most economies were centered around the trade of goods and societies became very politically central, as evidenced by the geographical layout of their cities and villages (Salisbury). These societies were very structured and successful prior to European arrival, however the arrival of Europeans would unfortunately cause this all to change.

Arrival of Europeans

According to P.C. Mancall “The arrival of Europeans had an immediate impact on the native peoples of the Western Hemisphere” (Mancall). Early European explorers sought riches and gold as described by those who returned to Europe. Little stopped those who traveled to the Americas, such as Cortez who ruthlessly ravaged the Aztec society as he plundered any gold and valuables he came across. Early explorers showed no shame in eliminating Native societies, as many Native accounts agree that Europeans brought nothing but “death, displacement, sorrow and despair” (Mancall). As time went on and exploration continued, the focus shifted more to colonization and establishing European societies in the Americas. Many monarchies were convinced to continue establishing a presence in the Americas under the guise of spreading European culture and religion. As previously mentioned, these Native societies already had deep and complex cultures, many of which consisted of a well-established religion (Salisbury). However in the eyes of the Christian Europeans, these societies were primitive and barbaric and they did not recognize the beliefs or religions of the Native. Thus the Christian Europeans sought to “save” the Natives by teaching them European ways and converting them to Christianity (Mancall). Despite the guise of spreading religion and converting Native Americans, Europeans still continued to kill and enslave Native communities, a far reach from simple missionary work. As more and more Native Americans became enslaved, killed or forced to adapt to European ways, the destruction and elimination of Native society and culture became more and more prevalent.

Conclusion

The technological innovations made prior to and during the Age of Exploration impacted societies worldwide. Navigational equipment, such as the compass and the kamal, improved allowing for easier travel and shipbuilding and weaponry made longer travel possible and safer. These technological advancements lead to changes in societies worldwide. As European nations focused more on exploring, the European economy became more trade-oriented. This also led to more conflict between European nations. As for Native American societies, many were wiped out either through disease, slavery, or forced adoption of European culture and society. This era of global exploration impacted many societies around the world, and shaped the world today in both good and bad ways.

Works Cited

Berthou, A., & Ehrhart, H. (2017). Trade networks and colonial trade spillovers. Review of International Economics, 25(4), 891-923.

Mancall, P.C. (1998). The Age of Discovery. Reviews in American History. 26(1), 26-53. https://doi.org/10.1353/rah.1998.0013.

The Mariners’ Museum and Park. (n.d.). Age of Discovery. The Ages of Exploration. https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/age-of-discovery/

Purinton, M. F. (n.d.). Technology in the Age of Exploration. Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/whp-origins/era-5-the-first-global-age/x23c41635548726c4:other-materials-origins-era-5/a/technology-in-the-age-of-exploration

Salisbury, Neal. (Jul., 1996). The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans. The William and Mary Quarterly, 53(3), 435-458. DOI: 10.2307/2947200

Wolfe, Brendan. The Age of Exploration. (2020, December 07). In Encyclopedia Virginia. https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/exploration-the-age-of.

AI Acknowledgement

This chapter made use of the ChatGPT AI tool for editing and reviewing as well as outlining for writing.

OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (Apr 1 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/