Renaissance/Enlightenment (1600’s-1800’s)
38 The Beginning of Anatomical Study
Alex Fischer
introduction
The Renaissance was a time of rebirth and intellectual growth that ignited curiosity and discovery across Europe. While some were creating new mechanical monsters like the printing press or the microscope, others turned their attention to the previously unexplored human anatomy. The work of Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius during the Renaissance sparked a shift toward anatomy and dissection in society, advanced medicines, and influenced countless works of art that are still praised today. As we will see, these discoveries deepened society’s understanding of the scientific world around us and, in turn, set new standards of medical care for people around the globe.
COnnection to Science, Technology, and society
The Renaissance marked a deepening of scientific understanding of the human body like never before. Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is defined by Harvard University as “[the exploration of] rich and compelling ways what difference it makes to human societies that we, collectively, are producers and users of science and technology” (What Is STS?, 2024). This newfound interest in anatomy spurred the creation of new technologies such as dissection tools and medicines. Societal impacts were profound, ranging from public dissections that prompted the spread of scientific knowledge to the undeniable influence on art. The study of anatomy during the Renaissance was paramount to the advances in science, technology, and society of the time.
Leonardo Davinci
Leonardo da Vinci is possibly the most well-known figure of the Italian Renaissance. He is typically remembered for his artwork, but he also made great strides in the world of anatomical discovery. During his apprenticeship in Verrocchio’s workshop, da Vinci became entranced by the workings of the human body (Heydenreich, 2018). This fascination traveled with him to the city of Milan, where he dove deeper into the skeletal and muscular systems that composed the body. To do this, da Vinci conducted numerous dissections, eventually making his way into hospitals in Florence and Rome, where he ultimately dissected up to 30 corpses in his lifetime (Heydenreich, 2018). As we will discuss later, dissections were a very new idea at this time, and often considered taboo. Da Vinci’s willingness to break societal norms for the sake of scientific discovery is what allowed him to be the scientist and artist he was. Much of his art incorporated the human figure. Pictures like the famous Vitruvian Man and his sketches of the human fetus and a man seen below are perfect examples of how his artwork was molded by his scientific mind (da Vinci, c. 1490, as cited in Heydenreich, 2018). These works of art are lasting and still have an impact on modern society today. Da Vinci’s innate curiosity and revolutionary approach to anatomy laid the foundations that continue to influence modern medical understanding, but he was not the only one.
Andreas Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius is less-known but equally influential figure in the development of anatomical sciences during the Renaissance. Vesalius was raised in the scientific world, with his family consisting of physicians and pharmacists. He attended the University of Paris, where he began his own path of dissection, initially on animals. As Florkin mentions in Britannica, Vesalius also “devoted much of his time to a study of human bones, at that time easily available in the Paris cemeteries” (Florkin, 2018). Vesalius’s extreme desire to learn drove him to the lengths of unearthing human corpses to study what had never been studied before. He later earned his doctoral degree in medicine from the University of Padua and began teaching his anatomical findings through public demonstrations. Through these dissections, Vesalius developed his own theories about the human body that contradicted the predominant theories of his time. He realized that the theories of Galen, which were based solely on animal dissections, were incorrect and set out to correct them (Florkin, 2018). Vesalius wrote and published the first comprehensive book on Western anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica, revolutionizing the field and cementing his claim as the “Father of Modern Anatomy” (Florkin, 2018). His work laid the foundation for modern anatomy and transformed the scientific understanding of the human body, paving the way for more advanced medical practice.
Impact on sugury and medicine
Without the anatomical work of Vesalius, such as his sketch of the lateral muscles seen in Figure 2 (Vesalius, c. 1543, as cited in Laurenza, 2021), such significant strides in surgery would not have been possible without his contributions during the same period. It was this newly available breadth of knowledge of the human body that allowed surgeons such as Giovanni da Vigo and Ambroise Paré to refine centuries-old techniques to better treat suffering patients. Giovanni da Vigo, renowned for being the first Italian surgeon to comprehensively report on firearm lesions, highlighted the ongoing challenges in treating gunshot wounds, exacerbated by infections and high mortality rates (Conti, 2019). The French surgeon Ambroise Paré further revolutionized surgical practices by challenging conventional methods. During a battle, when he ran out of the boiling oil traditionally used to treat wounds, Paré innovatively used a mixture of turpentine, rose oil, and egg yolk, resulting in significantly improved healing outcomes (Conti, 2019). Paré, often considered the father of modern surgery, would not have been able to make these improvements without his knowledge of the circulatory system, which was foundationally built from Vesalius’s work (Conti, 2019). This period marked a significant shift from reliance on animal-based anatomical knowledge to anatomy based on real-world application, directly influencing surgical practices of the time. However, none of this would have been possible without the revived curiosity of human dissection as a whole during the Renaissance.
The Revival of Human Dissection for science
After its inception in Greece in the third century AD, dissection and scientific inquiry were sidelined following the introduction and influence of Christianity on Europe in the Middle Ages. During this time, reverence for the church was deemed more important than any scientific pursuit (Ghosh, 2015). However, the strict guidelines imposed by the Church eventually began to relax. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Pope Nicholas II contributed to the less strict regulation of dissection from a legal standpoint in the 13th century. The Italian Renaissance saw a massive revival of dissections across universities as regulations began to relax, although society still viewed the practice as dirty and taboo (Ghosh, 2015). During this time, cadavers were supplied by local authorities and were often those of criminals. Over the next 300 years, dissection became a popular public spectacle, drawing large audiences and contributing to the growing interest in anatomy worldwide (Ghosh, 2015). Due to the eventual relaxation of legal restrictions on anatomy, the Renaissance resurgence of dissections played a pivotal role in the development of modern anatomy.
conclusion
The quest for knowledge and scientific discovery reached never-before-seen heights during the peak of the Italian Renaissance. Modern anatomy was pioneered during this time with an emphasis on public dissection in favor of teaching others about the practice. Despite the negative perception of dissection and the societal pushback against using human corpses, Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius built a foundational basis for anatomical study that influenced surgeons and artists alike. This emphasis on innovative techniques filled new textbooks, paved the way for more advanced surgical practices, and birthed some of the most recognizable works of art in human history. The impact of the Renaissance on anatomy and medicine continues to be felt today, highlighting the era’s contribution to the sciences and the arts.
References
Conti, A. A. (2019). The anatomical and historical background of surgery: Major surgical achievements during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology, 124(2), 210–213. https://doi.org/10.13128/ijae
Domenico Laurenza. (2012). Art and anatomy in Renaissance Italy: Images from a scientific revolution. Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven, Conn. https://books.google. com/books?id=u_U59cV_UCsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
Florkin, M. (2018). Andreas Vesalius | Belgian physician. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Vesalius
Ghosh, S. K. (2015). Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era. Anatomy & Cell Biology, 48(3), 153. https://doi.org/10.5115/acb.2015.48.3.153
Heydenreich, Ludwig Heinrich. “Leonardo Da Vinci.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Oct. 2018, www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci
What is STS? (2024). Harvard Kennedy School | Harvard University Program on Science, Technology & Society; President and Fellows of Harvard College. https://sts.hks.harvard.edu/about/whatissts.html
Images
Figure 1: ” Vitruvian Man” by www.lucnix.be, Wikimedia Commons is in the Public Domain, CC0
Figure 2: “Tri-State medical journal and practitioner (1897)” by Internet Archive Book Images, Wikimedia Commons is in the Public Domain, CC0