19 Technological Developments in the Mongol Empire

Thesis: The Mongol Empire, starting with the reign of Genghis Khan, had an important contribution throughout history on science, technology, and society. Their use of military technology, development of infrastructure and communication, cultural and intellectual exchange, and scientific contributions are pivotal.

Introduction: The Mongol Empire originated with the future Great Khan –  Temujin. Before his birth, The Jin Empire allied with the Tatars and conspired to get them and the Mongols to end one another to ensure the Jins faced no threat. Yesugei was a leader in the military of the Mongols; he kidnapped Ho’elum from her bridegroom and the Qlqunu’ud clan . Temujin was their second oldest (the first oldest was the Yesugie’s other wife’s child), and married Borte and was given to Dei Sechen (the Onggirad tribe leader) that included the Olqunu’ud tribe as a sub-group. Yseugei died on the way home by the Tatars because he was poisoned and the feud between them deepened.  Temujin murdered Bekhter, his oldest brother, perhaps because of family hierchies or from stealing food as they were abandoned from their tribe. The Tayichi’ud tribe attacked their camp to punish them for his inhumane acts and Temujin became a captive and was forced to wear a cangue (large wooden device); he was released from this by the Sorqan Shira household of Suldus (herdsmen). He later escaped and hid with Sorqan Shira, and he later returned to his family. Temujin gained his first personal follower, or nokor, Bo’orchu while retrieving his family’s stolen horses. He then traveled to the Kereit ordo (camp) to find Toghril Khan (the Kereit leader) that was an anda of Temujin’s father. In spite of being under this protection, Borte was kidnapped by Merkit to avenge Yseugei’s abduction of Ho’elun. Temujin used Toghril’s assistance to get her back and there befriended Toghril’s war chief Jamuqa as they attacked Merkit. Borte was found pregnant and gave birth to Temujin’s first son despite paternity uncertanties (son named Jochi). Borte encouraged Temujin, followers of Jamuqa, and Mongol leaders to split from Jamuqa. Temujin became khan of Borjigid Mongols which fueled disputes between him and  Jamuqa. Jamuqa won, so Temujin fled to the Qara Khitai, or the Jin Empire. He remained here for almost 10 years and returned even more powerful, perhaps indicating that he was a servitor of the Jin Empire.  Large portions of Mongols abandoned Jamuqa during this time because of his awful and inhumane acts against supporters of Temujin such as boiling people alive and tying their heads to tails of horses. In 1195, Temujin and his new / old supporters held a quriltai with Jurkin Mongols to renew their relationship to defeat the Tatars once and for all.  The goal of this quriltai was to make Temujin the khan and to plan an attack on the Tatars. The Tatars were later defeated by being caught between the Jin, Toghril ,and Temujin armies. Toghril received the title (king) so he was now known as Toghril Ong-Khan and Temujin received the title Ja’ut qority (Commissioner in Charge of Rebel Pacification) award. In Temujin’s absence, the Jurkin betrayed him by not fulfilling the pledge  and attacking the camp, so Temujin then murdered their elite and captured Jurkin commoners. This victory increased his status and rise to power. Eventually he defeated the Naiman with Toghril. Temujin had several commoners raised to generals instead of the aristocracy which led Mongol leaders to dislike him because of a lack of social hierarchy (defy social conventions). Toghril and Temujin became victorious over Jamuqa who was elected as Jamuqa GurKhan (Universal ruler) by the Kereit confederation. Also Temujin pursued the Tayichi’ud to defeat them as Toghril chased after Jamuqa to the Arghun River where Jamuqa surrendered. This assimilated ethnicities into the tribe which accepted many groups of people and increased its diveristy.

In 1202, Temujin ended the Tatar feud by attacking them and then absorbed the rest of the Tatars. He now controlled Eastern Mongolia, Naiman dominated the West, and Kereit dominated Central Mongolia. (3 central powers in Mongolia). Toghril succumbed to pressure and fear that Temujin would become too powerful and turned against Temujin; This led to battle which left the  Kereit’s defeating the Mongols who later counterattacked. Toghril then fled and was killed by a Naiman. Temujin defeated the Kereit empire, so he now controlled Central and East Mongolia. Naiman allied with jamua to attack Temujin as they feared the rise of Temujin and his potential wish to rule all of Mongolia. Temujin crossed Mongolia in early spring (when horses are weak) as a surprise attack and won an important battle at Chakirmaut on slopes of Khangai Mountains. According to the book “The Mongol Empire”, “Here he displayed a military genius in terms of organization, discipline, tactics and strategies that completely baffled his enemy, including opponents like Jamuqa who were well-regarded military leaders and familiar with Temujin’s style of warfare.” (May, 2018).

In 1204 and 1205 Temujin captured Jamuqa and in 1206 Temujin was given the title Chinggis Khan (firm or fierce ruler).

Temujin conducted a social revolution by reorganizing society into a military system. This formation existed for the military as well as households. It created checks and balances so he couldn’t be conspired against or abandoned by his relatives.

He tried to make one coherent body instead of different identities (single tribe or nation) meaning no longer Keteit, Tatars, or anything else, but solely Mongols. The 1206 quriltai formed a keshik (bodyguard) of 10000 men. Even the staff and household had training in military and administrative leadership.

The Mongols ruled the silk road. Hasan was a traveler and merchant and was one of the first muslims that Temujin encountered. Ja’far Khwaja (descendent of Muhammad) met Temujin at the court of Toghril. (another Muslim). He then followed Temujin as well.