Renaissance/Enlightenment (1600’s-1800’s)
35 The Age of Exploration
Navigational Technology and the Affect on Global Societies
JB Bahrenburg
Introduction
The Age of Exploration, an era in which many European countries began focusing their efforts on global exploration, brought on great change in global societal relations. This era would have never been made possible without first advancing numerous technologies. These technologies making this time period possible range from the obvious in navigational equipment to the more surprising in the invention of the printing press. As technology continued to evolve, more and more Europeans began to explore the world. This led to the rise of many deified figures such as Magellan and Columbus. These figures did change the world, and may have changed Europe for better, but their actions, and the overall actions of European explorers during this time, ultimately lead to the downfall of many Native societies worldwide. Improvements in navigation, shipbuilding, and mapmaking prompted the Age of Exploration causing the European economy to become more globally oriented and in effect causing the destruction of many Native societies worldwide.
Technological Advances
Exploration was not a new concept to Europeans by the time Columbus decided to search for India, however there had been very little, almost no, exploration of the Americas. With that, a fair amount of the exploration done was done on land, such as the work done by the almost mythified Marco Polo. Technology simply had not evolved enough to enable people to sail such vast distances provided by the Atlantic ocean. Hence, by the time this era rolled around, it was enabled by the technological advances that had been made prior and continued to be developed throughout the era. Many of the technological advancements that made exploration possible stemmed from knowledge exchanged with earlier civilizations. Islamic scholars preserved and expanded upon Greek and Roman geographical knowledge, refining techniques in celestial navigation. Additionally, the Chinese contributed key innovations, such as the sternpost rudder and advanced shipbuilding techniques, which influenced European naval designs. These cross-cultural influences equipped navigators like Columbus and Magellan with the tools necessary for their groundbreaking journeys (Buchanan, 2025).
Navigational Equipment
The number of navigational tools used during the age of exploration was fairly large in number and each had a unique use. Arguably the most important or at least widely used was the astrolabe. The astrolabe dates all the way back to the Romans and had been used well before the age of exploration, however advancements in this technology as well as the introduction of its variant the Mariner’s astrolabe contributed to this era. This technology was notably used by both Magellan and Columbus and assisted sailors in determining latitude based on measurements from the stars. Many other technologies used similar measurements to determine the latitudinal position of the ship. The Kamal had a simple design, consisting of a string and a piece of wood. The combination of these two allowed sailors to align the wood with the north star, then use knots on the string to make measurements. The quadrant, yet another technology, was fairly similar to the kamal. Once again relying on the north star to make measurements, the quadrant was used by sailors to determine the height of the north star in the sky once again allowing them to determine position. The quadrant was not only used for navigation, making it a particularly useful tool. This technology could also be used to measure the height of distant mountains or buildings along the shore. This could help determine distance from land. It also made the quadrant particularly useful in battle by allowing sailors to determine how far away buildings were (Purinton). Some other notable navigational technologies included the back staff, traverse board and magnetic compass. The compass allowed sailors to determine direction even when celestial navigation was not possible, such as during cloudy nights or storms. This greatly reduced the risks of open-sea voyages, where sailors could no longer rely on visible landmarks. By the 15th century, improvements such as the bearing compass enabled even more precise navigation, further encouraging transoceanic expeditions (The Mariners’ Museum and Park). The back staff, in a different manner from the previously mentioned tools, relied on the sun to make measurements. Sailors would stand with their backs to the sun and use the staff to measure their shadow. The traverse board, a fairly new technology during the era, involved a board in which sailors could mark their speed and direction every half hour (The Mariners’ Museum and Park). In addition to traditional compasses, explorers used advanced models like the dry compass, which relied on a pivoting magnetic needle housed in a box. This design was better suited for maritime travel as it was less affected by the rolling motion of a ship. The introduction of the bearing compass allowed navigators to take directional readings relative to the ship’s heading, further improving accuracy in navigation (The Mariners’ Museum and Park). Finally, the magnetic compass, a technology still used today, came from China and became widely used by sailors. This tool could be used alongside a map to determine position and direction by pointing towards magnetic north on the globe (Purinton).
Shipbuilding
As equipment used for navigation evolved, the ships used by sailors needed to evolve as well. Shipbuilding dates back to ancient times, but, similar to some of the navigational tools, ships were not quite equipped for long-distance travel, such as spanning the Atlantic. Hence, along came two more advanced ships, the Caravel and the Carrack. Most of what changed with these ships involved the additional or unique use of masts and sails. The Caravel, developed by the aptly-named Prince Henry the Navigator, had two to three masts. These masts could be equipped with either square or triangular sails. This unique ability allowed sailors to switch out sails for different situations. The square sails were used when faster travel was desired, such as covering long distances on the open ocean. When closer to shore, sailors could raise the triangular sails allowing for slower, more precise travel. The Carrack was slightly less involved, but did use similar principles. The Carrack had a varied number of masts, ranging from two to four, which could be equipped with larger sails for faster travel along long distances. One of the less considered advancements in shipbuilding actually involved the advancement of ship weaponry. Cannons, as with many other technologies mentioned here, had been used for quite some time. However advancements in cannons and cannon fire made them more suitable for maritime use. Cannons could be loaded with chain shots to take down masts or grape shots to cut down ship riggings and damage sailing equipment. As more and more people continued to sail and explore as well as the rise of maritime warfare and privateers, safety became a key issue. Ships needed to be able to protect themselves. Advancements in artillery made maritime travel more secure and safe (Purinton).
Mapmaking
Once again maps had been created and used for centuries before the age of exploration. The advancement made here that truly changed global navigation was not in the making of maps themselves but rather in the replication of maps. Gutenberg’s printing press, developed prior to the age of exploration, made the reproduction of any printed material exponentially easier. By the time the age of exploration rolled around, printed maps could be quickly replicated and distributed. This meant that maps became more consistent and could be easily distributed. Along with this, ease of access to maps of new lands and territories meant that travel became easier not just for explorers such as Magellan, but also for ‘everyday’ travelers such as merchants improving global trade (The Mariners’ Museum and Park). Not only did map-making aid in the replication of maps, but also in the spreading of popularity of exploration as well. The printing press enabled books, stories, and reports of explorers to be widely spread. This aided the popularity of the time period and lead to even more exploration (Wolfe, 2020).
Impact on Europe
Trade
As explorations continued and expanded, European nations became greatly affected by the era. The primary effect the Age of Exploration had on Europe involved international trade. The age had a strange effect in which it seemed to both increase trade, but at the same time decrease trade in a sense. As more and more explorers returned to Europe telling fables of gold and precious materials in the Americas, more countries raced to send explorers to bring back these valuable materials. However as time went on the focus seemed to change from seeking treasures from a strange work to establishing permanent settlements and establishing trade routes to bring items such as crops and lumber back to Europe. As European countries began to realize the values of these resources, they raced to establish more colonies. European countries would explore the Americas with the intent to establish colonies which would then accumulate resources to trade back to Europe (Berthou & Ehrhart, 2017). In this sense overseas trade and international trade increased, as many European economies were becoming more globally oriented and sought goods via trade from colonies. However in a way true international trade still seemed to decrease. Since European countries could now rely on colonies to acquire needed resources, they became less dependent on true other independent nations. These European nations would establish colonies, but then forbid them from trading with any other nation other than the ‘mother country’ (Berthou & Ehrhart, 2017). The widespread use of the compass not only facilitated exploration but also transformed global trade. Merchants and traders could now safely travel longer distances with greater confidence, leading to the expansion of maritime trade networks in the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, and the Pacific. The ability to sail more efficiently helped establish global trade routes that connected Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas (The Mariners’ Museum and Park).
Conflict
In a fairly correlated manner to how European countries became more hesitant to trade with one another, conflict arose amongst these nations as well. In the early years of the Age of Exploration many European nations were racing against one another to claim as much territory as possible and establish colonies as quickly as possible before any other nations could. Early on this involved a race between Spain and Portugal, which created conflict between the two nations. This would eventually be settled through the Treaty of Tordesillas, which divided up land in the new world amongst the two nations (Wolfe, 2020). This decision still impacts society today as this is the reason why Brazilians primarily speak Portuguese and most other South American countries speak primarily Spanish. Later on the French and the Spanish would come into conflict as well. This occurred when the Spanish showed interest in Florida and began establishing colonies in the territory. The French saw Florida as part of their claimed territory. This would in turn lead the French to settle further south, closer to Florida, in South Carolina. This once again would lead to conflict between European nations once again (Wolfe, 2020). Not only did this era lead to conflict between European nations, but between European colonies and Native Americans, but also colonies and European nations themselves later on.
Impact on Native Societies
Pre-Columbus America
Contrary to popular belief based on early research on the pre-Columbus Americas, many Native societies were highly advanced. Focusing on the societies of the United States, many Native American societies were agriculturally oriented. They would establish permanent settlements and as the society grew would establish smaller settlements surrounding them. This led to a central, more important “capital” as well as smaller surrounding farming communities. Permanent settlements led these societies to become more advanced economically, politically and socially. Most economies were centered around the trade of goods and societies became very politically central, as evidenced by the geographical layout of their cities and villages (Salisbury). These societies were very structured and successful prior to European arrival, however the arrival of Europeans would unfortunately cause this all to change.
Arrival of Europeans
According to P.C. Mancall “The arrival of Europeans had an immediate impact on the native peoples of the Western Hemisphere” (Mancall). Early European explorers sought riches and gold as described by those who returned to Europe. Little stopped those who traveled to the Americas, such as Cortez who ruthlessly ravaged the Aztec society as he plundered any gold and valuables he came across. Early explorers showed no shame in eliminating Native societies, as many Native accounts agree that Europeans brought nothing but “death, displacement, sorrow and despair” (Mancall). As time went on and exploration continued, the focus shifted more to colonization and establishing European societies in the Americas. Many monarchies were convinced to continue establishing a presence in the Americas under the guise of spreading European culture and religion. As previously mentioned, these Native societies already had deep and complex cultures, many of which consisted of a well-established religion (Salisbury). However in the eyes of the Christian Europeans, these societies were primitive and barbaric and they did not recognize the beliefs or religions of the Native. Thus the Christian Europeans sought to “save” the Natives by teaching them European ways and converting them to Christianity (Mancall). Despite the guise of spreading religion and converting Native Americans, Europeans still continued to kill and enslave Native communities, a far reach from simple missionary work. As more and more Native Americans became enslaved, killed or forced to adapt to European ways, the destruction and elimination of Native society and culture became more and more prevalent. One of the most profound consequences of European exploration was the Columbian Exchange, a vast transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and cultures between the Old and New Worlds. Crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, and maize from the Americas significantly boosted European agriculture and nutrition, while wheat, sugarcane, and livestock like horses and cattle were introduced to the New World. However, this exchange also had devastating effects—European diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza led to widespread population declines among Indigenous communities, reshaping entire societies (Periasamy, 2018).
Conclusion
The Age of Exploration was a transformative period that reshaped societies across the globe. Technological innovations in navigational equipment, shipbuilding, and mapmaking enabled European explorers to embark on long-distance voyages, leading to significant changes in global trade and cultural exchanges. These advancements not only facilitated exploration but also laid the groundwork for future technological progress during the Industrial Revolution. As European nations expanded their empires, they became more trade-oriented, establishing extensive maritime networks that connected continents. However, this era also brought about increased conflicts between European powers and had devastating effects on Native American societies. Many Indigenous communities were decimated by disease, slavery, and forced cultural assimilation. The widespread use of the compass and other navigational tools played a crucial role in Europe’s dominance in global maritime trade. Countries like Portugal and Spain were pioneers in establishing overseas empires, while Britain and the Netherlands later emerged as major naval powers. These developments significantly influenced the political and economic landscape of the world. In summary, the Age of Exploration was a period of remarkable achievements and profound consequences. It spurred technological advancements, expanded global trade, and led to the rise of European colonial empires. However, it also resulted in the exploitation and destruction of many Native societies, leaving a complex legacy that continues to shape our world today.
Works Cited
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AI Acknowledgement
This chapter made use of the ChatGPT AI tool for editing and reviewing as well as outlining for writing.
OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (Apr 1 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/